Here is a brief overview of how to use essential oils effectively.
This article includes:

• The Seven Best Ways of Using Essential Oils Effectively
• How Essential Oils Work: Absorption and Effects
• Contamination: Ten Important Facts To Know Before Purchasing
• The Safe Use of Essential Oils

We recommend that you begin your journey into the world of our Aromatic Treasures by reading this overview first. Please visit the ‘Writings’ section of the website for more in depth and inspiring educational material where you will learn the stories, healing properties and various uses of these phenomenal medicines.
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By David Crow, L.Ac.

Introduction
We are entering a period in history when human health will be seriously challenged. If the destructive trends of rapid global warming, accelerating loss of biodiversity, widespread pollution and degradation of ecosystems, deepening poverty, malnutrition, and political instability are not reversed, all forms of medicine will become increasingly ineffective, unaffordable, and unavailable. For large populations in many parts of the world, this future has already arrived.
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By David Crow, L.Ac.

Introduction
The last century brought immense improvements in health and longevity to people in the US. Some of these benefits can be attributed to medical advances, but most were the result of better sanitation, nutrition, and overall quality of life. Now, many of the improvements that were gained are being lost, and new threats to individual and collective health are emerging. Instead of open sewers, we have ubiquitous environmental contamination; instead of malnutrition from inadequate intake of food, we have widespread nutrition-related illnesses caused by degradation of the food chain. While modern medicine has made great advances, iatrogenic illnesses are among the leading causes of morbidity and fatality, and preventable and treatable chronic degenerative diseases have reached epidemic levels.

The Root Causes of Illness
Most health problems in modern America can be attributed to five root causes. These are:
Nutrition
Environmental pollution
Socio economic stresses
Spiritual emptiness
Medical treatments and drug toxicity

Holistic medical systems, including Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ayurveda, and Naturopathic medicine, offer significant benefits in the treatment of symptoms arising from these root causes, especially those related to nutrition, environmental toxins, and iatrogenic illness. Every clinician, however, is well acquainted with the limitations of what natural medicine can do when these root causes are not adequately resolved in a patients life.

Over the years, my clinical work has evolved toward an increasingly personalized form of practice, which strives to uncover, understand, and remove the root causes of illness, while simultaneously treating its symptoms. As a result, I have become aware of the urgent need for a new form of medicine, one which raises the overall level of environmental, social, nutritional, and spiritual wellbeing. It would not be alternative, complementary, or integrated medicine, although it could be used in many cases as an alternative or complementary therapy, or integrated with other healthcare modalities. Rather, it would be a parallel system of medicinegrassroots, community-supported, cost-effective, plant-based healthcare, accessible to everyone. In other words, folk medicine: using medicinal and nutritive plants grown in our neighborhoods, according to common knowledge passed down within families and communities.

Community-Supported Plant-Based Healthcare
The revival of folk medicine and the creation of community-supported plant-based healthcare depends on many types of social, botanical, educational, and environmental projects and participants working together, including:
Community and urban gardens
School gardens
Eco-villages
Eco-preserves
Agro-forests
Nurseries and small herb farms
Botanical gardens
Seed banks
Practitioners and educators of herbal medicine

Community and urban gardens
Community gardens and urban gardening have a long history, and are now re-emerging as viable alternatives to both modern agribusiness and destructive traditional farming methods such as slash and burn. Community gardens come in all shapes and sizes: from tiny, inner city plots tended by homeless people, to entire neighborhoods planted with foods and medicines. These gardens can be as simple as potted plants on balconies and rooftops, and as innovative as edible parks. In developing countries, urban and community gardens are a primary source of nutrition and income for countless families.

Community gardens are the foundation of grassroots healthcare. Without a strong nutritional foundation from affordable, locally grown organic foods, it is difficult to improve the standards of health in society. When medicinal plants and foods are cultivated together, folk medicine becomes part of the community.

When neighborhoods are transformed into gardens, numerous social problems are resolved: crime decreases, community and family bonds are strengthened. Gardens are places of beauty and spiritual solace, which bring happiness to those suffering from stress and emotional difficulties. Prison gardens, for example, are now recognized as one of the best paths to genuine criminal rehabilitation. By transforming our cities into living pharmacies and sources of nourishment, the five root causes of sickness can all be alleviated.

School gardens
School gardens are a rapidly developing aspect of community and urban gardening. In outdoor classrooms students find more enjoyment in learning; thus attention difficulties and behavior problems are reduced. Emotional growth and social skills are enhanced when students observe the processes of nature at work and are given responsibility for caretaking plants and animals. The high quality nutrition provided by the gardens, along with the physical activity of gardening, improves the overall health of students and teachers alike.

School gardens are the seeds for a sustainable plant-based culture. Many of the academic studies that are encouraged in todays schools will become obsolete in the coming years, and many new fields will become important parts of public education, including organic gardening, natural medicine, permaculture, sustainable ecology, alternative energy, and non-toxic industries. As more students begin careers in these areas, society will be positively transformed.

Eco-preserves, agro-forests, botanical gardens, and seed banks
Extinction of plant and animal species is accelerating. It is estimated that 34,000 species of plants are currently facing extinction, including many important sources of food, medicine, fiber, oil, and fuel. There are only two solutions to this global problem: the preservation of existing habitats, and widespread cultivation of endangered plants. At this time, only a relatively small number of medicinal plants are in sustainable cultivation; the majority continue to be overharvested from dwindling wild sources.

Eco-preserves, agro-forests, botanical gardens, and seed banks are playing a critical role in caretaking the genetic base of the plant realm for future generations. As community gardens flourish and folk medicine takes root in more neighborhoods, more plants can be brought into greater cultivation, drawing on the resources preserved by these larger entities. An excellent example is the work of Paul Strauss and the many volunteers at the United Plant Savers Sanctuary, who have renovated a degraded forest area into a world-class botanical preserve for the major endangered medicinal plants of the US. Projects such as these hold the key to the continuation of herbal traditions throughout the world, and the return of medicinal plants to society.

Eco-villages
Eco-villages represent the synthesis of all the elements necessary for the creation of community-supported plant-based healthcare. Eco-villages are based on innovative paradigms of self-sufficiency and independence from the economic and ecological disasters of corporate globalization; grassroots medicine is an important part of this self-sufficiency. Larger eco-villages produce their own food and medicines; some produce medicinal products for income, and some have small clinics operated by trained herbalists. Some are involved in agro-forestry or are linked with eco-preserves. Many offer educational programs in a wide variety of ecological, spiritual, and healthcare topics.

Practitioners and educators of herbal medicine
The last decade has seen an astronomical increase in the use of herbs by the general public, stimulated by the health food and natural products industries, the spread of alternative and complementary therapies, and the urgent need for nontoxic medicine. In order for herbal medicine to be further integrated into society at the grassroots level so that these medicines are available in a cost-effective way for everyone, the knowledge of how to grow and use the plants must once again become part of family traditions. Those who have training and clinical expertise with herbs can play important roles in bringing phytotherapies to a broader level of acceptance and use by society, and in establishing herbal medicine as a viable grassroots healthcare system.

There are several ways that herbalists and other healthcare practitioners can support the revival of community-supported folk medicine. The most important is helping to create and maintain community and urban gardens. When community gardens have the active support and participation of knowledgeable herbalists, information about the propagation, cultivation, harvesting, and use of medicinal plants becomes an ongoing part of the collective learning experience. Another way is to encourage patients to grow their own medicines, specifically those needed for their health conditions. This can easily lead to the creation of a network of gardens in a neighborhood, where a wide variety of herbs are being grown by different people. When herbs are grown in communities, either collectively in community-supported gardens or in a network of neighborhood gardens, many teaching opportunities arise naturally. Hands-on medicine-making classes, horticultural workshops, and classes on the use of specific plants or the treatment of specific health concerns are an excellent way for herbal practitioners to support folk medicine; it is also one of the best ways to build a clinical practice.

The Need For Grassroots Healthcare
The need for grassroots community-supported plant-based healthcare is becoming more urgent. The reasons for this include:
High cost of healthcare
Lack of insurance coverage
Need for affordable nontoxic medicines
Loss of medicinal plant species
Loss of ethnobotanical knowledge
Need for fresh, high-quality, locally grown foods and medicines
Loss of communities and degradation of urban environments

High cost of healthcare and lack of insurance coverage
While having the worlds most expensive per capita medical system, the US ranks among the lowest of the developed countries for quality of healthcare. Almost fifty million people now lack any form of health insurance, and an almost equal number are inadequately insured. This combination of high medical costs and lack of basic health coverage is causing impoverishment on top of illness, while the domination of the medical profession by the insurance industry is placing tremendous strain on the integrity and functionality of modern medicine. Although there is an increasing demand for universal healthcare coverage, there is little political will to change the current conditions.

Need for affordable nontoxic medicines
Even if universal coverage became a reality, it would probably cover only the basics of modern allopathic medicine. The great limitation and deficiency of modern allopathic pharmaceutical drugs is their inability to increase immunity, enhance nutritional status, regenerate vitality, restore humoral and energetic homeostasis, or detoxify; in reality, the epidemic of iatrogenic illnesses can be attributed to the adverse effects of drugs on immunity, nutritional status, vitality, homeostasis, and detoxification processes. Only the phyto-nutrients and medicinal constituents of botanical plants can effectively perform these crucial functions. Unfortunately, high quality herbal preparations are becoming increasingly expensive, and many people cannot afford the out-of-pocket expenses necessary to treat chronic conditions.

Loss of medicinal plants
One of the primary reasons for the high cost of many herbal medicines is decreasing supplies of plant materials. Uncontrolled overharvesting has brought numerous important medicinal species to the brink of extinction. As global demand and need for herbal medicines increase, overharvesting accelerates. This depletes natural populations, which increases the value of the plant, which in turn stimulates more overharvesting. Unfortunately, many important medicines will be lost forever due to this destructive cycle, and other plants will become so rare that they will be affordable only as luxury items for the wealthy. The only way that many medicinal and nutritional plant species will be saved from this fate is through widespread cultivation, both as commercial products and in community gardens as folk medicines.

Loss of ethnobotanical knowledge
Medicinal plants, the habitats they come from, and the understanding of their uses are inseparable. As medicinal plants are lost and the habitats they come from vanish, the accumulated knowledge of age-old ethnobotanical traditions also perishes. Community-based healthcare again offers the hope of preserving this valuable heritage. When plants are brought into widespread local cultivation, the knowledge of their cultivation, harvesting, preparation, and use can once again be preserved within families.

Need for high-quality locally grown foods and medicine
Fossil fuels are a finite resource; our modern lifestyle and agricultural methods, which are largely based on fossil fuels, are therefore finite. It is likely that in the near future, instability of oil supplies, worsening economic conditions, and the cumulative hidden costs of destructive agribusiness practices will drive the cost of growing and transporting food higher; the result will be increased malnutrition and decreased immunity in the population. Cultivating foods and medicines in local communities will reduce dependency on agribusiness and fossil fuels, and increase the general level of nutritional status and resistance to illness.

Loss of communities and degradation of urban environments
For many people, urban environments and the stresses of modern culture are the primary sources of sickness and suffering. The current degraded and deteriorating condition of many urban and suburban areas is the result of shortsighted city planning, which has placed cars, business interests, and racial segregation above the interests of people, nature, and health. Unpleasant and unrewarding careers in unhealthy work environments, so common as to be accepted as normal, present a formidable challenge to those seeking to improve their wellbeing.

Cities do not have to be unpleasant, unhealthy, and stressful places to live and work, however. As many projects are proving, cities can be places where business thrives in car-free environments, homeless people grow their own food, smog and pollution are dramatically reduced, opportunities for right livelihood abound, and the general level of nutritional wellbeing is improved through community gardening.

Through the universal human need for plants, plant-based healthcare can be linked to the re-greening of urban environments, resulting in many fundamental improvements in public and environmental health. The collective work of tending community gardens helps restores community and family bonds. Ecological cities create numerous job opportunities in non-toxic industries, which provide alternatives to the stressful disease-causing careers of the modern corporate world. Training homeless people to cultivate organic foods and medicines in urban settings is potentially one of the best solutions to the increasingly serious social problems of urban environmental degradation. By replanting cities, both with community gardens and urban forests, they will become cleaner, quieter, and more beautiful.

Creating Grassroots Healthcare
Building a grassroots movement to grow and utilize medicinal and nutritive plants in a collective manner requires commitment and resources originating from individuals, neighborhoods, and communities. In order for this movement to quickly gain momentum and have long-term success, it must be embraced by city planners, have the cooperation of numerous professions and organizations, and receive funding from governments. While this seems unlikely under the current political climate, worsening environmental, social, and medical conditions are bringing about significant changes in cultural priorities. Historically, the more economies suffer, the more people work together at the grassroots level to provide for their needs. A striking example of this is Cuba: in response to economic and political isolation, it has become a leading model of self-sufficient urban gardening and government-sponsored, community-supported folk medicine.

Numerous models of sustainable community-based healthcare are well-established throughout the world. These projects comprise a network of various functions related to the preservation, propagation, and utilization of medicinal plants, and are therefore crucial for the building of a grassroots movement as the greater global need increases. When social, medical, and environmental priorities change, when political will is activated, and when government support becomes a reality, these projects will be the repositories of plants and knowledge from which sustainable cultures can be created.

Examples of people and projects creating grassroots healthcare
One of my favorite ongoing research projects is collecting stories and photographs of projects around the world that are promoting herbal conservation, ecological restoration, and grassroots healthcare. I find that networking with the people involved in these projects, and promoting their work, is an important source of spiritual nourishment in these troubled times — an enjoyable form of psychoneuroimmunology for myself and others. More importantly, these projects are the seeds of a sustainable future for natural medicine and grassroots healthcare in general, and medicinal plants in particular.

Below are brief descriptions of some of the people and organizations that I include in my various multimedia presentations, which exemplify various aspects of grassroots healthcare. I am personally most involved with the first two, The Learning Garden and the Self and Soul Medicinal Forest. Through my involvement in both of these projects, I have come to understand that community-supported plant-based healthcare is labor-intensive, powerfully effective, and critically important. Its effects reach far beyond the mere treatment of symptoms, and address the deeper causative roots of illness at all levels: socially, economically, ecologically, and spiritually.

The Learning Garden
Venice High School, Los Angeles
www.thelearninggarden.org
The Learning Garden is a collaboration between Venice High School, Yo San University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, and the local community. Its purpose is to bring high quality nutrition and medicinal plants into the public school system, to deepen the level of herbal education for students of traditional Chinese medicine, and to educate the community about the benefits of plant-based healing systems.

The Learning Garden was initiated two years ago by a group of volunteers from the high school, the university, and the community. Since that time, a 60,000 square foot agricultural plot on the campus has been transformed from a mostly abandoned eyesore into the beginnings of an extensive organic garden. A pond has been renovated and filled with water-loving medicinal plants, and a garden of Chinese medicinals has been planted. A large tai chi platform has been built near the pond and is being utilized by classes regularly. The garden has received funding to plant an extensive collection of fruit, nut, and medicinal trees, as well as a large Ayurvedic herb garden. Plants for this project have been donated by a number of individuals, including Jean Giblette of High Falls Gardens, Cindy Riviere of Plant It Herbs, and Richo Cech of Horizon Herbs.

The Learning Garden is an excellent example of what can happen when schools, clinics, and the community work together. During the last year, the garden has received an increasing amount of media coverage and local recognition. In the coming year, we are anticipating that food and herbs from the garden will begin to make a significant contribution to the overall health of the students at the high school. To further assist in that goal, Yo San has made their clinical facilities available to Venice High students and faculty at greatly reduced rates. This integration of garden and clinic into the public school system is a powerful model that should be duplicated throughout the country.

The Self and Soul Center: A Medicinal Forest and Biological Ark
www.selfsoulcenter.org
The Self and Soul Center is a privately owned spiritual center and psychotherapy clinic operated by Rod Birney, MD, and ZM Suzanna Nadler, M.Ed., LPC. Located outside of Ashland, Oregon, the twenty-five acre property is an ideal home for a large number of medicinal plant species. Over the last two years, we have worked with an increasing number of people from the local communities to plant and maintain a diverse collection of herbs and wild foods from around the world. Many plants have been donated by and purchased from the same people who have supported the Learning Garden.

The Self and Soul medicinal forest is another excellent example of the integration of clinical practice, community education, and locally grown botanical medicines. The Center sponsors a variety of classes in herbal medicine, meditation, and spiritual practices, which are attracting an expanding circle of both teachers and students. Recently, we linked the Center to both the Botany and Native American Studies departments of Southern Oregon University in Ashland. Students from the university are now undertaking ethnobotanical and ecological study projects on the land. A number of local herbalists have become involved in the planting and maintenance of the forest. Dr. Birney, who practices drug-free psychotherapy, has planted around his office a garden of herbs specifically related to treatment of emotional and mental disturbances.

For me, the Self and Soul medicinal forest represents a return to the traditional livelihood of physician-healer as naturalist, botanist, pharmacist, and ecologist. When I see patients at the Center, I am able to offer them freshly harvested plants; sometimes I take patients into the forest and teach them about specific herbs that are beneficial for them. As the diversity and abundance of herbs increase over the years, a wider spectrum of fresh plant medicines will be made available to the patients and visitors, in a variety of forms. This summer we are opening a residential Ayurvedic clinic, which will feature therapeutic treatments using freshly harvested and prepared herbal medicines. The depth of required knowledge and amount of labor involved in this type of work is extremely demanding, yet profoundly gratifying.

Future Vision Ecological Park
Sau Paulo, Brazil
www.sustainablevillages.org
The Future Vision Ecological Park was founded by Dr. Susan Andrews (Didi Anadamitra), in Parangaba, Sao Paulo State, Brazil. This successful eco-village is based on the principles of creating abundance through organic cultivation and complete recycling of natural resources, and guided by the philosophy that ecological sustainability is intimately linked to spirituality.

Since its inception in 1992, members of the village have replanted thousands of trees on the 120 acre property, in what was once a dry, barren district deforested for cattle ranching. Today, the wildlife has returned, and the entire ecosystem is returning to its original state. Rain water is caught in small man-made lakes and filtered through an elaborate system of rocks, sand, and plants. The waste water from the kitchen, bathrooms and laundry is filtered through a similar biological wetland system. The organic gardens are abundant with fruits and vegetables, and nutritious vegetarian meals are served in the kitchen every day. The village is powered by solar and wind energy.

The village is an inspirational model of community-supported grassroots healthcare. Medicinal plants are grown in a number of gardens, processed in the village laboratory, utilized in the Ayurvedic clinic, and sold to the general public. The Living Pharmacy Program teaches children and youth from surrounding schools about growing, harvesting, and preparing herbs for cooking and the treatment of common ailments at home. Volunteer doctors and the Ayurvedic clinic serve the eco-village members, visitors, and surrounding villages.

Dr. Andrews and her crew are working closely with Jamie Lerner, three-term mayor of Curitiba, a Brazilian city the size of Philadelphia. Curitiba is considered one of the most innovative and environmentally friendly cities on the planet. To date, nearly 1000 adults have attended courses at the village in human development, preventive health care, education, culture, self-reliant industries, and Ayurvedic medicine, and are further disseminating these ideas through activities in 18 cities throughout Brazil.

High Falls Gardens
hfg@capital.net
High Falls Gardens represents an important historical evolution in the age-old tradition of Chinese medicine, and a major step toward establishing grassroots healthcare. Founded in 1993 by Jean Giblette, High Falls Gardens conducts field trials of Chinese medicinal plants in the Hudson Valley region of New York, with the goals of increasing diversity of crops for small-scale farming and creating direct links between farmers and practitioners of herbal medicine.

High Falls Gardens works with a network of different professionals, including horticulturalists, agronomists, and farmers to establish production of Chinese medicinal plants as new specialty crops. Ms. Giblette has been educating farmers about the impact of Chinese medicine on Western culture, and how the increased demand for these botanical species can create new income streams.

The work of High Falls Gardens is based on the understanding that holistic medical practitioners and ecological agriculturalists are natural allies. One of Ms. Giblettes primary activities is bringing these two groups together in a direct marketing alliance that de-commodifies the production of medicinal plants. Linking the growers of medicinal plants directly with the practitioners and patients that use them eliminates several levels of marketing and distribution costs, thereby making herbal medicine more economically accessible and cost-effective.

High Falls Gardens practices biodynamic farming methods and advocates organic cultivation of herbs as a path toward both individual and environmental health. By working directly with local organic farmers, High Falls Gardens is striving to provide practitioners with high-quality medicinal plants, thereby avoiding the problems of contamination and adulteration that have characterized many imported Asian herbs.

One of the Gardens future projects is translating the texts and researching the methods of Pao Zhi, the traditional processing techniques used by farmers and herbalists in China. These techniques not only enhance the medicinal powers of the plants, but also provide value-added income for small farmers and community-based small industries. Bringing this knowledge to the US will not only benefit the entire field of herbal medicine, but will also make important contributions to the development of grassroots healthcare systems.

By providing seeds and grant money, High Falls Gardens has been instrumental in starting herbal gardens at several colleges of traditional Chinese medicine around the country. These gardens could become important preserves for endangered species as the wild populations in Asia decline. High Falls Gardens has made generous contributions to the development of the Learning Garden at Venice High School.

By David Crow, L.Ac.

(Published in Maui Vision, Oct. ‘04)

There are deep and mysterious relationships among the soil, water, sunlight, and air, and the bodies of plants that absorb and transform these elements. There are wondrous alchemies in the transmutation of these elements by plants into foods, medicines, and fragrances.

An aromatic plant creates its fragrance from nutrients of the soil and its symbiotic microbial ecologies. When we breathe that perfume, we are breathing the breath of the living soil.

An aromatic plant creates its fragrance from radiant solar energy, in a biorhythm set in motion by the sun, moon, and stars. When we breathe that perfume, we are breathing the breath of the celestial heavens.

An aromatic plant creates its fragrance from springs, dew, rains, snowmelt, and underground streams. When we breathe that perfume, we are breathing the breath of the living waters.

An aromatic plant creates its fragrance from wind and breezes. When we breathe that perfume, we are breathing the breath of the sky.

There are deep and mysterious relationships among the movement of the heavens, the environmental elements, the aromatic molecules created by the plants, and the atmosphere that is their medium of travel.

There is a deep and mysterious relationship between the atmosphere and the human breath.

There are deep and mysterious relationships among the aromatic molecules traveling through the atmosphere, the human breath, and the neurochemical changes that occur as fragrances enter the brain.

There is a deep and mysterious relationship between the neurochemical changes created by the aromatic molecules in the brain, and the effects these have on consciousness.

There are deep and mysterious relationships among the movements of consciousness, the fluctuations of mentation, and the flow of time and space.

Ultimately these are one living mystery, from the movement of the heavens to the creation of reality by the human mind. Knowing this, we can purify the world.

Putrid, fetid, rancid, noxious, repulsive, and unpleasant odors arise from conditions of poverty and hunger, war and violence, ignorance and unawareness, lack of sanitation, and toxic pollution. They are the breath of pathogens, the smell of epidemics, and the scent of death. They cause unhappiness, agitation, aggression, and dullness in the human mind.

Fresh, clean, attractive, enjoyable, and pleasant smells arise from conditions of environmental stewardship and ecological balance, sanitation and cleanliness, social and spiritual wellbeing. They are the breath of health and the scent of vitality. They cause happiness, serenity, compassion, and greater awareness in the human mind.

To transform the growing realms of human misery to realms of happiness and fulfillment of human potential, we must now wisely cooperate to plant gardens perfumed with beautiful fragrances and living pharmacies of aromatic medicines.

Humanity does not need more weapons. It needs balms of lavender, rose, and neroli that promote peaceful sleep, reduce stress and tension, calm anxiety and nervousness, pacify irritation and anger, and free the mind from depression and fear.

The world does not need more disease-causing toxic chemicals and mutated biological experiments, concocted in secrecy and spread across the globe in defiance of scientific reason, human sanity, public health, and democratic process. It needs unguents of frankincense and vetiver that cool fevers and inflammation. It needs elixirs of osha, rosemary, and ginger that stimulate and strengthen the immune system, and purifying essences of pine, fir, spruce, and cedar that disinfect the mucous membranes. It needs salves of helichrysum, chamomile, and champa that cure skin diseases.

Society does not need more electronic gadgets, microwave-based communication systems, high-tech entertainment devices, faster computers, and fancier software. We need to anoint each other with fragrances that promote emotional openness, quiet the mind, build inner strength, overcome isolation, enhance intimacy, and support truthful communication. We need noble aphrodisiacs of sandalwood, jasmine, and lotus that help men transform pathological lust into passionate love, and help women transform their fear and hatred of mens violence, aggression, and stupidity into nourishing powerful sensuality.

When peaceful cities are blessed with myriad sweet floral scents, when healthy forests are filled with balsamic coniferous perfumes, when farms are enveloped in the earthy aromas of healthy soil and robust crops, when homes are infused with temple essences that bring joy and tranquility, we will understand why the ancients taught that plants were gifts from heaven.

By David Crow, L.Ac.

(Published in Yogi Times, Oct. ‘04)

Lavender is one of the most well-known, versatile, and extensively used essential oils in the world. When we use this essential oil we receive the blessings of the feminine, because lavender could be described as an angel of healing from the floral realm, and an expression of the earths compassion.

Lavender has a long history of use. Originally, it was an herb used primarily in European herbology, but it has now spread worldwide. When one thinks of lavender cultivation, images of Provence in the south of France may come to mind, where it has been grown for centuries. But lavender has migrated across the globe, and is now at home in places as diverse as northern California, New Zealand, Kashmir, and the Himalayan states of India. Because demand for high quality organic oil is high, lavender is an ecological crop that provides income for many people. Lavender cultivation is also a source of ecotourism, as people are naturally drawn to the beauty and peaceful atmosphere where it is grown.

What is the fragrance of lavender? One who is unfamiliar with the aromatic world might assume that all lavender oils are the same, but there are hundreds of species and varieties that create oils with different perfume notes, as well as differences produced by the soil, water, and climate. In general, lavender has a soft, sweet, and floral aroma. However, depending on the quality and place of origin, it can reveal a wide range of other scents, including hints of spiciness, fruity undertones, and green and herbaceous notes. When one smells lavenders from different places, it is easy to imagine the different elements that influence the plant: the hot summer Mediterranean days, the icy mountain winters, the spring rains.

Therapeutically, lavender is one of the most versatile and safest of all essential oils. Its wide spectrum of benefits can be summed up as calmative and relaxing, cooling and anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and immune enhancing, and hormone balancing. Lavender enhances the healing powers of the body: it is effective against colds, flus, and infections, and used specifically for burns. It has pain-reducing properties, which, because of its feminine nature, are more pronounced in women than men. Lavenders pleasing fragrance and skin-regenerating benefits make it one of the most commonly used oils in cosmetic and body products.

Lavender is safe and effective for children, who are more sensitive than adults and therefore more susceptible to its soothing influence. Used in diffusers in the home, it create a background scent that calms hyperactivity, excitability, and irritability of both parents and children.

How would yogis and yoginis use lavender? In Ayurvedic terms, the effect of lavender oil could be described as pacifying to the vata (calms, relaxes, and restores the nervous system) and cooling to the pitta (anti-inflammatory). It is a highly sattvic oil, meaning that it purifies aggravated emotional states and helps bring mental peace.

Use a few drops in a diffuser at the end of asana practice to make the transition into a calm state of rest. A few drops in a bath afterwards will refresh the mind and support the purifying effects of the asanas. If you are sitting down to meditate after a busy day, sprinkle a few drops of oil on your palms and inhale the fragrance. This will assist in making the transition from an active state of outwardly-focused sensory stimulation to an inward state of absorption and mental serenity.

Sprinkle a few drops on the pillow and sheets before starting yoga nidra, yogic sleep. The fragrance of lavender will make it easy to imagine beautiful scenery and peaceful visions before drifting into sleep. The combination of this fragrance with meditative sleep will give deep rest to those suffering from insomnia, and will assist in waking up refreshed and renewed.

By David Crow, L.Ac.

(Published in Yogi Times, Nov. ‘04)

The next time you stop to smell a rose, imagine that its deep, rich floral fragrance is a gift from nature to your heart and soul. In her generosity, the earth has blessed us with over five thousand varieties of this beautiful flower. However, only a few give the world-renowned treasure sought by perfumers: the oil of rose.

The most famous of the roses is the pink-red Damascus rose. This rose is legendary for the exquisite aroma of its oil. In Bulgarias Valley of Roses, this rose and the white rose are cultivated side by side, as their companionship strengthens each others resistance to harsh weather and disease.

Roses, like all flowers, have a biorhythm that dictates their cycles of blossoming and production of fragrance molecules. The harvesting of roses for distillation begins in the early dawn at the time the Vedas call Brahma muhurta, Gods time, as the peak production of oil in the petals is in these pre-dawn hours. Roses produce their maximum levels of damascenone, the primary molecule of rose fragrance, on the mornings of the full moon. Ayurveda observes that the full moon radiates a special kind of energy, called soma, which is said to have a cooling, nourishing, and relaxing effect on the mind and body. It is fascinating to consider the biological connections between the cooling influence of the moons rays, the biorhythmic production of damascenone molecules in roses according to the moon, and the effects of rose oil, which, like soma, are cooling and relaxing to the mind and body.

This, then, is one way to think of the feminine oil of roses: it is the moonlight absorbed by the flowers, the dew on their petals at dawn, and the flavors of the soils in which they grow. It is a well-known fact among farmers and perfumers that organically cultivated roses produce a superior oil, while those raised with synthetic pesticides and fertilizers lose the essence of soma. A pure rose oil from healthy soma-rich roses is an elixir for ojas, the nutritional essence that supports the immune system. Rose oil is tridoshic, meaning that any body type can use it without concern for causing physiological imbalances.

As we are in the Thanksgiving season, it would be appropriate to mention a few statistics about rose oil as we savor its aroma. It requires 1,400,000 handpicked blossoms to produce a liter of oil. A single ounce of the oil contains the essence of 40,000 blossoms, and sixty-seven blossoms give only one drop. If we remember these numbers as we inhale the precious perfume, we will naturally feel a sense of gratitude toward all those who have labored hard to bring us such a treasure.

There is an analogy between this labor and the symbolic meanings of rose in spiritual traditions. Rose oil is a gift of healing and joy from the flowers, but this essence does not come easily. Likewise, roses symbolize the open heart filled with love and sattvic consciousness, which, like a gradual alchemical distillation process, must be cultivated with yogic diligence, sincerity, and mindfulness. Roses are also a paradoxical symbol for the apparent duality of worldly and spiritual realms: they represent the essence of purity, innocence, and sattvic qualities, yet their oil is also one of the most famous ingredients in alluring and sensual perfumes. Like the symbolism of lotuses, which are said to open their radiant petals above the mud of worldly concerns, roses offer their enticing beauty, but warn us of samsaras dangers with their thorns.

There are many ways for yogis and yoginis to use rose oil to enhance their practice, all of them enjoyable. A drop applied to the heart, throat, or third eye centers deepens any meditation, especially those contemplations that develop love and compassion. Rose has renowned powers as a sexual rejuvenator and romantic aphrodisiac; it is the perfect anointing oil for yourself and your beloved before tantric lovemaking, helping to transform the impulses of sexual gratification into deeper levels of emotional intimacy. An application of rose oil as a simple perfume is an antidote to the rajasic aggravation that disturbs the mind when we follow the news too closely, something to remember in this election month. A few drops of oil or a sprinkling of fresh petals on the bath restores equanimity and joy lost in the course of a typical modern workday.

Wearing this exquisite oil is not only a treat to yourself; everyone you come in contact with will be affected positively by the aura of this sublime flower. Remember this next time you stop to smell a rose.

By David Crow, L.Ac.

(Published in Yogi Times, Dec. ‘04)

Over two thousand years ago, three sages made their way across the desert, following celestial signs. Among the various gifts they carried for the newly incarnated Avatar was a collection of resinous tears, one of the most sacred substances and valued medicines of the time. Ever since then, frankincense has been remembered as a fragrance associated with the Christian holidays.

Frankincense comes from northeastern African countries and the Arabian Peninsula. The primary producing areas are Somalia, Ethiopia, and Oman. The Dofar Valley of Oman is considered to be the source of the highest quality resin, which is harvested by Beduin nomads.

Frankincense is one of the worlds oldest and most famous items of commerce. For over a thousand years, the resin has been carried by camel caravan from the remote harvesting regions in the desert to the far corners of Asia. Navigating by stars, the ancient traders made their way across the sands of the Sahara, following a network of secret cisterns built to collect the precious scanty rain. Every year large shipments of the treasured resin tears found their way into the cities of northern Africa, to be sold in markets from Rome to Beijing.

There are numerous species and varieties of frankincense trees, each producing a slightly different type of resin. Differences in soil and climate create even more diversity in the resin, even within the same species. In some places the desert environment is so harsh that the trees grow directly out of marble rock; the resin from these hardy survivors is considered superior.

To harvest frankincense, the outer bark of the tree is cut with a metal knife, causing the resin to bleed out. A few weeks later the harvesters return, gather the resin tears that have flowed from the tree, sort them into different grades, and store them in caves. The highest quality frankincense is the tears which are almost pure white.

Frankincense is highly valued for its medicinal powers. Oleoresins are a part of a trees immune system, secreted to protect it from herbivores, insects, and fungal pathogens. Resins also speed the healing of wounds to the tree, which is why the sap flows when the bark is cut. In a similar way, frankincense has medicinal functions related to enhancing human immunity and supporting rapid healing. Frankincense has been used historically for treating respiratory infections, regenerating the skin, and for treating wounds, bruising, and scars. The resin of Boswelia Serrata, Indian frankincense, is now widely used for its anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory properties; these functions were well-known in Ayurveda long before the discovery and isolation of boswelic acids, the active compounds.

Frankincense is the most universally known temple incense. When burned on a censor, the resin gives a sweet pine-like smoke, which purifies the atmosphere and uplifts the spirit. Foul odors have always been regarded as a sign of evil spirits, which could be interpreted in modern scientific terms as the presence of pathogenic microbes. Frankincense has confirmed antibacterial properties, which can remove these disease-causing spirits. In medieval times, the fumigation of churches with frankincense was as much an antiseptic function as a spiritual one, since most people were filthy from lack of sanitation. Many spiritual practices, including those taught in Ayuveda and the yogic traditions, are actually derived from hygienic methods.

How can yogis and yoginis use and enjoy frankincense? A few drops of high-quality frankincense oil can be applied to the palms, rubbed together, and inhaled. This produces an instantaneous clearing of the sinuses and a strong activation of the prana entering the brain and lungs. Frankincense essential oil can be mixed with a carrier oil such as coconut or sesame and applied to sore joints and stiff muscles. A few drops of the oil can be sprinkled on a hot wet towel and applied to the chest for opening and stimulating the respiratory system.

To express their devotion, meditators could offer a tear of resin or a drop of essential oil on a charcoal placed on their altar; the fragrance is pleasing to the hearts and minds of humans and deities alike. We might like to adopt a simple practice from Arabic cultures: honored guests are greeted by sprinkling a few shavings of the familys finest frankincense on a coal, producing a cloud of smoke that the guest then uses to wash himself before entering. These types of simple practices promote inner peace, improve health, increase social harmony, and remind us of our common spiritual ancestry, which in turn are the foundation for creating peace on earth.

By David Crow, L.Ac.

(Published in Yogi Times, January 2005)

Like scented stars appearing in the evening dusk, the night-blooming jasmine silently opens her five-petalled blossoms beneath our windows. In the dawn her sister will bloom, again filling the breeze with enchantment. Together, the jasmine sambac (night-blooming) and the jasmine grandiflorum (dawn-blooming) are among the most potent, ethereal, and intoxicating floral fragrances in the world.

Perfumes are the messengers of attraction, sensual pleasure, erotic enticement, and passionate excitement. Just as flowers secrete their nectars to attract pollinators for the perpetuation of their species, so too do humans use perfumes to enhance their attractiveness and signal their interest in love and intimacy. Jasmine, with her mysterious sultry aroma befuddling the rational mind with aphrodisiac impulses, is the foremost of all perfumes. “No jasmine, no perfume” is an old saying, indicating the great importance of the flower to the perfumers and their industry.

The sense of smell is generally the least appreciated of our senses. Although it is almost dormant in many people today, it remains neurologically our most powerful and primitive sense. Olfaction is deeply and directly linked to emotional memories, sexual vitality, and sensual wellbeing, which in turn are the basis of immunity and longevity. Jasmine, like all floral scents, can awaken feelings that have long been forgotten, sentiments that can often reopen a heart protecting itself from the painful stresses of life. More than once in my lectures and workshops, people who grew up in India have wept when they smelled the essence of jasmine, so strongly did it take them back to their childhood. All over tropical Asia, the sensuous fragrance of tiny white stars blossoming outside bedrooms is woven into the secret world of dreams.

In India the night-blooming jasmine is called mugra, Night Queen, who brings joy to the heart and soul with her exotic sweetness. From the main growing areas in Madurai in the south come tons of creamy white flowers, flown and trucked overnight to the flower markets of the cities. They will be made into garlands for festivities, offered to the deities in their temples, hung over lovers beds, and worn in the hair of beautiful dark-skinned women. Such are the simple things that make a culture civilized.

France was once the center of jasmine cultivation and distillation, but the flower has now moved to Egypt, India, Morocco, and South Africa. In India, organic and ecological cultivation of jasmine is being revived using traditional methods, which are often based in Vedic agricultural wisdom; these methods enhance the richness and beauty of the flowers aroma.

Jasmine oil is one of the most expensive of all floral oils: over eight million blossoms are required to produce one kilo of essence. Each blossom must be carefully harvested by hand so as not to bruise the flower, which would produce unpleasant fragrance notes in the finished oil.

Ayurveda describes jasmine oil as sweet, cooling, and tridoshic, meaning that it benefits all body types. When used therapeutically, such as during marma point therapy, the oil is said to be nourishing to the tissues and strengthening to the nervous system.

Recent scientific research has confirmed what traditional Ayuvedic knowledge has observed over the centuries. Studies on the effects of inhaling jasmine fragrance have found that the flower produces a stimulating effect on the mind, and significantly increases mental alertness. Other studies found that this stimulating effect reduces the need for sleep. As lovers and tired parents know, these are prerequisites for romantic fulfillment.

Anyone who spends time with the plant kingdom will come to know through experience many things that science later confirms by research. Ramakant Harlalka, one of my fragrance mentors, shared a fascinating story about the effects of jasmine fragrance with me during a recent trip to India. “The night blooming jasmine has a very unique effect on the human mind,” he commented. “It makes people very energetic and joyful. I have witnessed professional perfumers playing in an ocean of jasmine flowers which had been spread out for processing. Normally these men are very serious, but this fragrance made everyone so happy that they were acting like children. We gave another group fresh jasmine flowers to keep in their rooms overnight; the next morning everyones face was happy and relaxed, and they told me that they had unusually pleasant sleep with sweet dreams.”

Increased mental energy, reduced need for sleep, erotic attraction, romantic happiness, pleasant dreams, joy: these are the ways we can remember jasmines blessings. These are the reasons people in India plant jasmine around their homes, enjoying the relaxing benefits after working hard during the day. It is also why my teacher said so simply yet profoundly: “I have come to clearly understand that because of their unique fragrances, flowers such as these can make everyone happy. It does not matter where they are from.”

By David Crow, L.Ac.

Introduction

Frankincense and myrrh are without a doubt the worlds two most important resins. Although other resins, such as pine, copal, styrax, and dragon blood have played important roles in ethnobotanical medicine, none have been as widely distributed and universally utilized, as economically important, or so highly regarded. This paper presents an overview of these valuable trees and the history, culture, and some of the medical uses of their resins.

Ancient Frankincense and Myrrh Trade

The earliest history of frankincense and myrrh trade is shrouded in myth. The gum-bearing trees were said to be guarded by fierce red snakes which leaped into the air to inflict fatal bites on any intruder. The trees were believed to grow in forbidding mountain areas surrounded by swirling mists that caused deadly diseases and fatal epidemics. Frankincense and myrrh brought from such inhospitable terrain was considered to be sacred to the gods, and reserved for divine worship.

The frankincense and myrrh market of the Old World was highly lucrative for almost 1,500 years. The source was based in a small geographic area, the demand far exceeded the trees ability to produce, and there were great difficulties in delivering the materials over vast distances. As a result, the flow of these resins as commodities made the Arabs who dealt in them among the wealthiest on earth at the time.

The trading of frankincense and myrrh expanded greatly around the 11^th century BCE, with the establishing of improved land routes and domestication of the camel. From the harvesting centers in northeastern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, the resin was transported to Egypt, and then by sea to India and other destinations. The life of the Arabian frankincense and myrrh merchant was one of camel caravans crossing barren sands, navigating by stars, and following a route between secret water cisterns hidden from roaming thieves. Many cities, such as the rock-carved canyon city of Petra, prospered and reached high levels of sophisticated civilization because of the wealth brought by these resins. By 1000 BCE, myrrh and frankincense were widely distributed throughout the Old World. Babylon, Assyria, Egypt, Persia, Rome, Greece, and China all imported these resins, to be used as temple incenses and as important medicines. Frankincense and myrrh were prized possessions in the ancient world, rivaling the value of many precious gems and metals.

The height of the frankincense trade occurred during the second century CE when some three thousand tons were shipped each year from south Arabia to Greece, Rome and the Mediterranean region. After the 3rd century CE the trade went into its decline, although demand still supported Arabia for another three hundred years. Even into the Middle Ages frankincense was an Arabian trading commodity.

Economic and Ecological Value

Frankincense and myrrh trees are crucial for preservation of fragile desert ecologies, and are a source of sustainable livelihood for local societies, especially those maintaining nomadic and semi-nomadic lifestyles. Many of the ecological, economic, and spiritual traditions surrounding these trees are in danger of being lost. Large areas of their native habitat have been cleared for cultivation, firewood, building materials, and animal fodder. Without the trees, wind and rain erode the underlying soil, producing infertile sub-desert conditions and forcing people to migrate to cities. However, if protected, these trees could provide valuable crops of oils, gums and resins, as well as preserve traditional agrarian lifestyles.

The early frankincense trade was of great economic significance to those who lived in the areas where the trees grew, to those who managed the trade in the various market outlets, and to those who controlled the overland trade routes. For the semi-nomadic people living off the land, harvesting of frankincense has historically proven to be a viable livelihood. The harvesting of the resins is a sustainable practice, whereas the current harvesting of the wood is not.

In Somalia, which is one of the poorest and least-developed countries in the world, trials to plant new stands of frankincense are currently underway. Current interest in frankincense essential oil in the West has helped develop a small but strong market for Somali frankincense. While destruction threatens some species of Boswellia in some regions, in others there is an abundance that is not being utilized. Ethiopia and Sudan are the biggest exporters of Boswellia papyrifera, with abundant supplies of this type of resin offering good potential for economic development in these countries.

I

Frankincense

Origin of the Name

The Arabs called the milky sap of the frankincense tree al lubn, from the word for milk. The same word gave rise to the name of Lebanon, whose mountains were always capped by milky snow. Al lubn became anglicized to olibanum, which is another name for frankincense. The word frankincense means the true, or frank, incense.

Origin and Habitat

Frankincense trees are found in Oman, Somalia, Ethiopia, Yemen, the southern Arabian Peninsula, and India. The desert of the Dhofar region in southern Oman is the source of Boswellia sacra, sacred frankincense. The Boswellia serrata, Indian frankincense, is widely distributed and abundant in the dry, hilly parts of India. The trees on the Somali coast grow out of polished marble rocks without soil; the purer the marble the stronger the tree. The Boswellia papyrifera grows primarily in Ethiopia and Sudan.

Botany and Morphology of Frankincense

Frankincense is the hardened oleo gum resin exudate (a mixture of volatile oil, gum, and resin) from different species of Boswellia. It is a translucent, brittle, whitish-yellow substance, in roundish, club-shaped, pear-shaped, or irregular tears, and usually covered by a whitish substance produced by the pieces rubbing against each other. The purer varieties are almost colorless, whitish, or with a greenish tinge, and easily flammable. It has a sub-acrid, terebinthinate, bitter, and aromatic taste. It melts with difficulty, becomes soft and adhesive by chewing, and forms an incomplete white emulsion when rubbed up with water.

When burned, frankincense produces a brilliant flame and diffuses an agreeable aroma. This aroma is described as fresh, balsamic, dry, resinous, slightly green, with a fruit topnote and a diffusive note of unripe apple peel. This fragrance is due predominantly to mixtures of complex mono- and sesquiterpenes.

There are approximately twenty-five species in the genus. The major species are Boswellia sacra (synonymous with Boswellia carteri), Boswellia papyrifera, Boswellia serrata (Indian frankincense), Boswellia thurifera, Boswellia neglecta, and Boswellia frereana.

There is much confusion surrounding the proper identification of the various types of frankincense found in the market. Contributing to this confusion are differences in species, varieties of individual species, effects of microclimates on the trees, variations in quality of harvested resin, and time of harvesting. To those who gather the resin in the wild, these differences are not economically important enough to differentiate between species. Wild-harvested frankincense therefore has unique individual characteristics.

In the Dhofar region the trees tend to be short and squat, reaching a height of five meters, with papery peeling bark which varies from white to reddish in color. Multiple trunks often rise out of a cushion or disk-like base which helps stabilize the tree on the boulders and steep embankments where they grow. Alternate, pinnately compound leaves cluster at the end of branches. Small white to pale pink flowers appear on the tree from September to November and are followed by small capsule, obovoid type fruits. All parts of the tree from the flowers, fruit, bark, and wood, are charged with the resinous perfume.

The Indian Frankincense (Boswellia Serrata) is a large, tall, deciduous tree having a straight, buttressed trunk with a clear bole and widespread branches. The trunk and branch bark are gray in color and have hard, sharp, and conical spines.

Frankincense trees can live for at least a hundred years. Their flowers are popular with bees.

Harvesting

In Oman, frankincense is gathered by Bedouins; trees are owned by the families living in a particular area where they grow. The guardianship of the trees is passed on from generation to generation, and there are ancient rituals surrounding the harvesting of the resin. On the southern Arabian coast, the trees are tapped yearly by visiting parties of Somalis, who pay the Arabs for the privilege of collecting frankincense.

Frankincense from Oman is harvested during the spring and fall, with that produced from the fall harvest considered the best. In India, the collecting of Boswellia serrata resin, or Salai-guggul, is carried out towards the end of October.

The general process of harvesting frankincense is similar in the various regions. The trees are scored at various places along the main trunk and branches with a sharp metal blade, or by scraping away a portion of the bark. The wounds in the bark produce milky white resin, which hardens as it dries on the tree. Healthy and mature trees are selected for tapping, and proper tapping does not injure the tree. The oleo gum resin secreted from the cortex is fragrant, transparent, and golden yellow and solidifies into brownish-yellow tears or drops. In India, the oleo gum resin is scraped and collected in a circular tray placed around the trunk. In Oman, once the seasons collection is completed, the raw frankincense is stored in dry caves to cure before being sold.

In general, there are four grades of frankincense tears. The first is the superfine, which is translucent, very light yellow and free from impurities. The second is first quality, which is brownish yellow and less translucent, but free from impurities and bark. The third is second quality, which is brownish, semi translucent, and containing some impurities. The lowest grade is third quality, which is dark brown, opaque, and with impurities. In India, the highest grade is what is collected first, while in Oman the later collections are considered superior.

When the oleo gum resin is collected exclusively for essential oil production the fresh semi-solid material is used. It is not allowed to dry, because drying would cause many trace components to be lost.

Essential Oil

The essential oil of frankincense contains more than two hundred molecular compounds, which give the essence a very complex bouquet and range of therapeutic applications. Even within a particular species of tree there can be considerable difference in the proportion of these components depending on the microclimate and soil where the trees grow, the season at which the resin is harvested, and a number of other variables. The oil is also influenced by age and storage. Frankincense oils are therefore diverse from an olfactory and therapeutic standpoint.

Traditional Uses of Resin

Large amounts of frankincense tears are consumed in the local harvesting areas. The fresh gum is chewed for strengthening the teeth and gums, to stimulate digestion, to expel congested phlegm, and to combat halitosis. Small pieces of gum are inserted into painful teeth and to combat dental caries. The resin is boiled in milk until a thick paste is formed, which is then applied as a poultice to inflamed swellings such as mastitis, and taken internally for bronchial conditions. It is infused in wine for respiratory conditions, and in Saudi Arabia the gum is added to coffee.

In the Dhofar region, women smooth the soft gum over their hair to keep it in place and give it a shiny appearance. Cones of the resin are burned as candles outdoors at night to keep away wild animals and evil spirits. The ancient Egyptians used frankincense and myrrh for embalming, as resins are bacteriostatic and do not decay. Frankincense is used in Arab homes to perfume clothes and purify the atmosphere. It is used in traditional festivities such as weddings and religious celebrations. Visitors are often offered bowls of burning frankincense; men use it to fumigate their beards, while women perfume their head shawls. Students facing exams place two or three of the highest quality tears in water with a piece of iron overnight and drink the resulting liquid first thing in the morning; this has been found to improve their memory and consequent chances of success.

Therapeutic Properties

The oleo gum resins produced by trees such as frankincense, myrrh, pine, spruce, fir, and others are a major part of the trees immune system. Tree sap has antibiotic and antifungal properties which protect the tree from infections, wound-healing properties for closing and regenerating the bark, and pheromone-like signaling mechanisms for repelling insect attackers and attracting the attackers natural predators. When humans use oleo gum resins or essential oils derived from trees, we are utilizing the molecular components of the trees immune system to boost our own. The general functions of frankincense resin and essential oil can therefore be described as immune-enhancing; antibiotic, antifungal, antiviral, and antiseptic; and wound-healing, with pronounced anti-inflammatory properties. Below is a brief list of the most important therapeutic applications of frankincense, which is by no means complete; the uses of frankincense are so numerous that it can accurately be described as a panacea, used for everything from colds to cancers. Since the resin is widely used for chewing, it can be assumed that it is not toxic to humans; however, use of the essential oil must be guided by appropriate precautions.

Skin

Frankincense has cytophylactic properties, meaning that it encourages healthy growth and regeneration of skin cells. Because it has rejuvenating and wound-healing effects on the skin, it is useful for treating cuts and other wounds, eczema, boils, acne, scars, stretch marks, skin ulcers, and inflamed skin. Traditionally, the resin was prepared into various salves and ointments for these purposes, while now the essential oil is used more often.

Mouth

Frankincense is chewed to strengthen teeth and gums and to refresh the mouth. It has antibiotic properties which make it useful for infections of the teeth and gums.

Digestion

Chewing of resin has the secondary benefit of cleansing the digestive system by stimulating bile flow and enzyme secretion and reducing fermentation. A decoction of the resin with cinnamon and cardamom is a traditional formula to relieve stomachache.

Colds

Steam inhalation of the essential oil is an excellent treatment for colds and sinus congestion. Traditionally, the smoke of the smoldering gum was inhaled for treating head colds.

Wounds

Powder of the dried gum is a common ingredient in herbal plasters and pastes used to treat wounds, especially in Chinese medicine. A traditional recipe for an antiseptic wound powder is to mix the powdered resins of frankincense, myrrh, and dried aloe.

Insect Repellant

Burning frankincense in churches had hygienic functions as well as spiritual importance. People of the Middle Ages lived in extremely unsanitary conditions, so the fumigation of churches helped reduce the stench of the unwashed congregants and reduce contagion through atmospheric purification. Burning frankincense also repels mosquitoes and flies.

Memory

The use of frankincense by students for memory and the addition of the resin to coffee, as described above, are based on the resins memory-enhancing effects. The addition of the resin to coffee is used as a stimulant to treat amnesia.

Rheumatism

While all types of frankincense have anti-rheumatic properties, the Indian frankincense in particular has been utilized by Ayurvedic medicine for this purpose (see Boswellia Serrata and Boswellic Acids below). Use of the essential oil in massage is an excellent treatment for rheumatic and other pains of the muscular system.

Psychological Conditions

Fumigation with frankincense has been used in various cultures to treat a wide range of psychological and emotional disorders. In modern aromatherapy, it is used to promote calmness, deeper breathing, and a relaxed state of mind, and is therefore beneficial for depression, anxiety, and mental negativity.

Headaches

Fumigation using the resin is a traditional treatment for headaches. Vaporizing of the essential oil can be used for the same purpose.

Childbirth

In frankincense-gathering regions, gum is burned beside the mother during labor, and the newborn baby is fumigated. Regular fumigation of the baby continues for forty days following the birth. The mother treats herself during this time by squatting over a bowl of the burning gum. This practice assists in the healing of scarring or lacerations, protects the woman from postpartum infections, restores muscle tone, and accelerates recovery.

Decongestant

Frankincense essential oil and fumigation by resin help reduce excessive secretion of mucus.

Respiratory Antiseptic

Frankincense essential oil and resin are used for treating a variety of respiratory problems such as bronchitis and laryngitis. Steam inhalation of the essential oil, combined with other respiratory oils such as eucalyptus, is highly effective. Traditionally, the resin was boiled in goat milk and taken as an antitussive.

Eyes

The resin is a common ingredient in eye washes to treat infections and irritations, as well as a wide variety of ophthalmic diseases. Fumigation with the smoke is considered beneficial to sore or tired eyes.

Cosmetics

Frankincense has countless uses in both modern and traditional cosmetic products. Mixed with beeswax, the resin was once a common treatment for removing darkness and bags under the eyes. Egyptian women use frankincense in various preparations for rejuvenating face masks; it helps improve dry, wrinkled, and aging skin.

Medicinal Uses of Boswellia Serrata
Indian frankincense (Boswellia serrata) has been used extensively in Ayurvedic medicine. Its function is similar to the myrrh-like resin obtained from Commiphora mukul. The Sushruta Samhita and Charak Samhita describe the anti-rheumatic activity of various types of gugguls (oleo gum resins), especially the Boswellia serrata; these texts indicate that these resins have been used medicinally for over a thousand years.

Boswellia Serrata resin is described as having bitter and sweet flavors, with astringent, demulcent, expectorant, antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties. It is a powerful wound healer and very effective in the treatment of painful joint diseases with inflammation and reduced mobility. It improves blood supply to the affected areas, shrinks inflamed tissue, reduces pain, and enhances repair of local blood vessels damaged by proliferating inflammation. These effects are attributed to chemical compounds known as boswellic acids, which are now used in contemporary medicine as anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory pharmacological agents.

Boswellic Acids

The gum resin of Indian frankincense (Boswellia serrata) contains four major pentacyclic triterpenic acids, collectively referred to as boswellic acids. Studies have shown that boswellic acids have an anti-inflammatory action much like conventional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS). Boswellia inhibits pro-inflammatory mediators in the body such as leukotrienes. As opposed to NSAIDS, long-term use of Boswellia does not lead to irritation or ulceration of the stomach.

A review of PubMed reports on clinical trials using boswellic acids or resin of Boswellia serrata reveals that these substances have been studied and found highly effective in such conditions as rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, low back pain, soft tissue rheumatism, myositis, fibrositis, chronic colitis, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, bronchial asthma, and peritumoral brain edemas. Besides its pronounced anti-inflammatory properties, it has been found to have a strong immuno-stimulant activity.

Incensole

There has recently been increased interest in using frankincense essential oil as an anti-cancer agent. The following quote is from a personal correspondence with Dr. Ermias Dagne, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, who is distilling various gum resins for Floracopeia.

Extracts of Boswellia papyrifera and Boswellia Carteri contain a diterpene compound called incensole. Incensole is an interesting biologically active compound, reported to have anti-cancer properties. Incensole and other similar diterpene compounds cannot be captured by steam distillation, as they are not highly volatile. About ninety-nine per cent of the resin is thrown out after distillation, but many interesting compounds are present in the residue and hydrosol. Extraction of this residue using food-grade ethanol from organic molasses brings out large proportions of diterpenes, which give the extract a very rich balsamic aroma, with incensole as one of the major components. On the other hand, incensole is only a minor component of the essential oil which is obtained by steam distillation.

Based on this information, we are currently developing a high-incensole ethanol extract of Boswellia papyrifera, which will be used in various formulations.

II

Myrrh

Origin of the Name

Myrrh is a resin that has a bitter taste; its name is derived from Hebrew murr or maror, meaning bitter.

Origin and Habitat

Myrrh is an oleo gum resin obtained from species of Commiphora trees. There are over fifty species of Commiphora known in Africa, including Commiphora molmol (Somalian myrrh), and Commiphora mada, (Abyssian myrrh). These are small trees of the Burseraceae family, native to the bushland that covers the drier parts of northeastern Africa, Somalia, Arabia, Madagascar, and India. Myrrh is now also found in Ethiopia, Iran, and Thailand.

The major commercial source of myrrh is Commiphora myrrha. However, like frankincense, there are uncertainties about the origin and identity of different types, many of which are not from Commiphoras. Some of the varieties of resin found in the market include Mecca balsam, said to be the myrrh of the Bible; different types of bdellium, including perfumed bdellium, formerly known as East Indian myrrh, African bdellium, opaque bdellium, and Hotai bdellium; and gugul, or Indian bdellium. To further complicate the subject, there are also several varieties of opopanax which are sometimes confused with myrrh, such as Commiphora guidotti, known as sweet myrrh, cassie (Acacia farnesiana), and copal (Copaiba officinalis), an oleoresin which the Catholic church uses in place of myrrh in Central and South America.

Morphology

Myrrh is a thorny tree which grows in thickets to a height of about nine feet, preferring well-drained soil in the sun. The light gray trunk is thick and the main branches are knotted, with smaller branches protruding at a right angle and ending in sharp spines. It has hairless toothed leaves with a large terminal leaflet and two tiny lateral leaflets. Yellow-red flowers grow on stalks in an elongated and branching cluster; they are about five millimeters long and come out just before the rains. The small brown fruits are about one and a half centimeter long, tapering to a pronounced beak. The bark has a silvery sheen and peels in small pieces.

Collection of Resin

Like frankincense, myrrh resin is collected as a thick, strongly aromatic yellow liquid from natural cracks or cuts in the tree bark, which then dries into amber or reddish-brown colored lumps. The tears are found in many sizes, the average being that of a walnut. The surface is rough and powdered, and the pieces are brittle, semi-transparent, oily, and often show whitish marks. It is flammable, but less so than frankincense. Adulterations are not easily detected in the powder, so it is better to purchased in bulk so they can be removed.

The oil which is distilled from myrrh resin is typically thick, pale yellow to orange-brown, with a warm, balsamic, sweet, spicy, and sharp aroma. It has many of the same properties as the resin itself.

Historical and Traditional Uses

Myrrh is one of the oldest medicines in the world. It has been mentioned in Egyptian medical texts since 2,800 BCE, and is one of many herbs mentioned in the Ebers Papyrus, which documents over eight hundred medicinal recipes. The Egyptians consumed large amounts of myrrh, both in temple rituals and embalming; it was also burned in temples of Babylon, Greece, India, Rome and China. It is one of the ingredients of the famous magic-inducing incense, Kyphi, and the ointment Metopian, used for treating infections and wounds. In Chinese medicine, the use of myrrh was recorded as early as 600 CE during the Tang Dynasty, where it was used in a similar manner. Like frankincense, myrrh was an important trade item for more than a thousand years.

Traditionally, myrrh was used for as many diverse purposes as frankincense. It was a primary ingredient in incenses and holy oils used to inspire prayer, deepen meditation, and revitalize the spirit. It was used to fumigate the body to promote cleanliness and stimulate immunity, and continues to have an important role in cosmetics and perfumery. It has also been used to treat cattle and camels, and burned to repel snakes.

Therapeutic Uses

Like frankincense, myrrh resin is a predominant part of the trees immune system. Many of the therapeutic functions of myrrh are therefore similar to frankincense. A comparison of the two reveals that myrrh is more astringent, antiseptic, disinfectant, bitter, and tonic, while frankincense is more anti-inflammatory, blood vitalizing, and mentally uplifting. The two are often combined. Like frankincense, myrrh has a long history of use for a wide range of conditions, with virtually no toxicity.

The Eclectic physician Dr. Ellingwood describes the therapeutic properties of myrrh as follows: “This agent has always been highly esteemed as a stimulant, although its influence is more of a local than a general character. It exercises the characteristic influence of most of the stimulants upon the excretions and secretions, acting as a diaphoretic, expectorant, sialagogue, and to a certain extent emmenagogue. As a most active general stimulant in ulcerative, engorged, flabby and atonic conditions of the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat this agent acts promptly. It stimulates the capillary circulation, restores tone and normal secretion and causes the healing of ulcerations. In its influence upon the digestive apparatus myrrh is direct in its action. It quickly increases the power of the digestive function, stimulating the peptic glands to extreme action. It increases the appetite and promotes the absorption and assimilation of nutrition. It is given in atonic dyspepsia in the absence of inflammatory action, especially if there is excessive mucous discharge from the bowels.

Below is a brief list of the most important therapeutic applications of myrrh, which is by no means complete; like frankincense, its uses are so numerous that it can also be described as a panacea.

Mouth and Throat

Myrrh is a specific and highly effective antiseptic astringent for inflammations of the mouth, throat, and gums. It is a common ingredient of herbal toothpowders and mouthwashes, and is widely used through India and the Middle East for oral and dental problems. The German Commission E has approved myrrh for treating mouth inflammation. Its list of indications includes mouth sores and ulcers, gingivitis, irritation from dentures, soreness and looseness of teeth and gums, gum disease, tooth decay, and bad breath. Myrrh is also very effective for infectious and inflammatory conditions of the throat, including strep throat, tonsillitis, and pharyngitis.

For these various symptoms, tincture of myrrh can be diluted and used as a mouthwash and gargle, or applied directly to sores. It is frequently combined with echinacea and/or golden seal for these purposes.

Digestion

In the digestive tract myrrh acts as a stimulant, carminative, tonic, and chologogue. Its bitter principles stimulate the appetite and the flow of digestive juices, improving digestion and absorption. It both relaxes and invigorates the stomach, calming spasms, relieving gas, and combating fatigue associated with weak digestion. Its antibacterial and antifungal powers help reduce candida and other pathogenic factors in the gut. Myrrh has pronounced anti-parasitic properties. By improving digestion myrrh clears toxins from the digestive tract and acts as a general detoxifying and anti-inflammatory remedy, thereby treating the root causes of arthritis, rheumatism, and gout. It can be combined with aloe vera for treatment of both the symptoms and causes of constipation.

Respiratory System

Myrrh is a stimulant, expectorant, and decongestant with antibacterial properties. It is helpful for relieving bronchitis, asthma, and colds. In Ayurvedic terms, it dries kapha (mucous secretions), reduces pitta (antibiotic), and stimulates prana (opens breathing). In Chinese terms, it is a stimulant of Wei Chi (respiratory immune enhancing). It can be a specific remedy for chronic sinusitis. It can be used in carrier oil as a chest rub.

Skin

Myrrh is an astringent antiseptic that is beneficial for acne, rashes, and inflammatory skin problems. The tincture, powder, or essential oil of myrrh can be applied directly to ulcerated sores, wounds, and abrasions. It can be made into salves for treating hemorrhoids and bed sores. For boils it can be taken as a blood cleanser while also being applied externally. It is an excellent addition to the medicine cabinet of those who live in tropical places such as Hawaii, where staph infections can be easily acquired from coral cuts or walking on beaches.

Wounds and Bruising

Myrrh is similar to frankincense in its wound-healing and blood-vitalizing properties, and the two are often combined in liniments.

Antimicrobial and Immune Stimulant

Myrrh is both an antimicrobial agent and a direct stimulant of white blood cell production. It increases resistance to infection, and is one of the most effective of all known disinfectants from the plant kingdom. It is a rejuvenating tonic, and is reputed to enhance of the intellect.

Gynecology

Myrrh acts as an anti-spasmotic circulatory stimulant to the uterus. In this capacity, the resin or tincture is taken for amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea as a purgative of stagnant blood. It helps normalize irregular periods. Myrrh helps promote efficient contractions and relieves pain during childbirth. As an antimicrobial, dilute tincture can be used in vaginal douches. Its internal use should be avoided by pregnant women.

Circulatory System

Myrrh is classified in Chinese medicine as a blood vitalizer with anti-rheumatic and anti-arthritic powers. It is commonly used in liniments and medicated oils for these conditions, as well as general circulatory weakness and stagnation.

Warnings and Contraindications

Myrrh should not be taken orally by women who are pregnant. Oral doses of two to four grams have resulted in kidney irritation and heart rate changes, both of which resolved after individuals stopped taking myrrh. Cases of allergic rashes have been reported from the topical use of myrrh. It may lower blood sugar in some individuals.

Myrrh Abstracts from PubMed

A sampling of studies published on PubMed concerning myrrh derived from different species of Commiphora reveals that the resin reduces cholesterol and triglycerides; that it is a promising non-hepatotoxic anti- helminthic for schistosomiasis; that it is highly effective (100 per cent cure rate) on fascioliasis parasite without remarkable side effects; that its triterpene Myrrhanol A is a more potent anti-inflammatory than hydrocortisone; that it possesses smooth muscle-relaxing properties; that its sesquiterpene fractions had antibacterial and antifungal activity against pathogenic strains of E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans; and that its extract has strong efficacy as an insecticide against the cotton leafworm. In other publications it has been reported that a sesquiterpenoid compound isolated from myrrh is highly effective against drug-resistant tumor cells found in the breast and prostate, without toxicity to healthy cells.

References:

King’s American Dispensatory. by Harvey Wickes Felter, M.D., and John Uri Lloyd, Phr. M., Ph. D., 1898.

Furanosesquiterpenes from Commiphora sphaerorocarpa and related adulterants of true myrrh, Fitoterapia, 73, 48-55.Dekebo A, Dagne E, Sterner, O., 2002.

Essential oils of frankincense, myrrh and opopanax. Flavour Fragr. J. 18, 153-156. Baser, KHC., Demirci, B, Dekebo, A, Dagne, E. (2003).

Analgesic effects of myrrh. Nature 379, 29. Dolara, P., Luceri, C., Ghelardini, C., Monserrat, C., Aiolli, S., Luceri, F., Lodovici, M., Menichetti, S., Romanelli, M. N. (1996).

Toxcity study in mice of resins of three Commiphora species. SINET: Ethiop. J. Sci. 26, 151-153.Mekonen, Y., Dekebo, A. , Dagne, E. (2003).

Toxicity studies in mice of Commiphora molmol oleo- gum-resin. J. Ethnopharmacol. 76:151-154.Rao, R.M., Khan, Z.A. and Shah, A.H. (2001). Frankincense and Myrrh. Economic Botany 40, 425-433.Tucker A.O. (1986).

Effect of myrrh extract on the liver of normal and bilharzially infected mice an ultrastructural study. Massoud AM, El Ebiary FH, Abd El Salam NF.

Role of circulating Fasciola antigens and IgG4 isotype in assessment of cure from fascioliasis. Hegab MH, Hassan RM.

A safe, effective, herbal antischistosomal therapy derived from myrrh. Sheir Z, Nasr AA, Massoud A, Salama O, Badra GA, El-Shennawy H, Hassan N, Hammad SM.

Preliminary study of therapeutic efficacy of a new fasciolicidal drug derived from Commiphora molmol (myrrh). Massoud A, El Sisi S, Salama O, Massoud A.

New triterpenes, myrrhanol A and myrrhanone A, from guggul-gum resins, and their potent anti-inflammatory effect on adjuvant-induced air-pouch granuloma of mice. Kimura I, Yoshikawa M, Kobayashi S, Sugihara Y, Suzuki M, Oominami H, Murakami T, Matsuda H, Doiphode VV.

Efficacy of the botanical extract (myrrh), chemical insecticides and their combinations on the cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis boisd (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae). Shonouda ML, Farrag RM, Sala

Minor components with smooth muscle relaxing properties from scented myrrh (Commiphora guidotti). Andersson M, Bergendorff O, Shan R, Zygmunt P, Sterner O.

Volatile oils of frankincense from Boswellia papyrifera. Bull. Chem. Soc. Ethiop. 13: 93-96.Dekebo, A., Zewedu, M., Dagne, E. (1999)

Flavours and fragrances of plant origin, Non-Wood Forest Products, 1, FAO, Rome. Coppen, J.J.W. (1995).

Local anaesthetic, antibacterial and antifungal properties of sesquiterpenes from myrrh. Dolara P, Corte B, Ghelardini C, Pugliese AM, Cerbai E, Menichetti S, Lo Nostro

By David Crow, L.Ac.

Bakul (Mimusops elengi), champa (Michelia champaka), and parijata (Nychanthes arbotristis) are among the most beautiful and sacred of Indias many exotic flowering trees. Countless souls throughout the ages have lived in the gentle presence of these beneficent beings that give their barks, leaves, roots, seeds, resins, and flowers for medicine, ceremony, and pleasure. So rich are their contributions to traditional societies that the ancient Rishis proclaimed these trees to be gifts from the heavenly realms, bestowed upon humanity and brought to earth by the gods of the Hindu pantheon. Endowed with religious symbolism and divine attributes, these three trees in particular are deeply entwined with the culture, lifestyle, and ancestral memories of people across the subcontinent.

Bakul, champa, and parijata are all associated with various deities and are planted in and around the grounds of temples and ashrams. Bakul trees, for example, are frequently found growing at temple entrances. Following the ancient custom of marrying male and female trees, the bakul, which is considered male, is planted on the right side of the entrance, while the chalta tree (Dillenia indica), which is considered female, is planted on the left side. The bakuls deep green leafy branches offer luxuriant shade and cool respite from Indias blazing heat, creating a peaceful atmosphere that is conducive to meditation. Legend tells that Buddha was born under the glorious golden-flowered boughs of the tall champa tree. The parijata flowers resemble miniature mandalas, with pure white petals unfolding from a bright orange center; this image was seen by the Rishis as symbolic of agni, the purifying flame of awareness, burning away the obscurations of the mind to reveal the petals of purified consciousness.

All three of these trees offer a vast pharmacy of ethnobotanical remedies, utilized for centuries for ailments ranging from sore muscles and the common cold to malaria and epilepsy. It is the fragrance of their flowers, however, which has made them so beloved and renowned. The bakul flowers are tiny, but have a potently sweet fragrance which pervades the surrounding countryside. The flowers of parijata are also small, yet exude a unique and intense honey-like hyacinth bouquet, unlike any flower known to the West. The large golden-petalled flowers of the champa tree are also strongly aromatic, with a radiant soft and spicy sweetness. This flower in particular is loved by Indian women, who wear the nectar-scented blossoms in their hair.

Because of their delicate beauty and delicious perfume, bakul, champa, and parijata are used extensively as temple offerings to please the gods and goddesses, worn and given as garlands at festivities and ceremonies, made into incense, and compounded into an endless variety of unguents and medicated oils. In perfumery, these three flowers are alchemically distilled into a base of sandalwood oil, forming the subtle natural perfumes known as attars. Beneficial for everyone, yet with a distinctly cooling nature, these floral essences are highly effective for pacifying heat conditions of both the body and the mind.

A hundred years ago, Sri Ramakrishna was walking under the fragrantly flowering trees that grew at the Kali temple in Calcutta. Reaching up, he plucked a blossom and gazed at it in wonder. In his god-intoxicated state, he perceived the white sap oozing from the flower as blood flowing from a wound, and realized that he had just killed a living being. From then on, he instructed his disciples to never pick flowers, but to let them fall naturally to the ground, as offerings from the tree. What botanists now know is that when a flower blossoms it produces a spherical aura of fragrance that is similar to the radiation of light from the sun. Every flowers living aura has its own radius: the golden champa has one of the highest diffusivity levels of all flowers, while the musk champa, which grows only in Bombay, has an even greater radius: one tiny flower can be smelled throughout an entire neighborhood.

The effect of aromatic molecules on consciousness is profound and well-documented by both traditional Ayurvedic and modern scientific research. The Charak Samhita tells us that Sweet smells maintain youthfulness and vigor, and give a long life. They are rejuvenating, and increase sensual enjoyment. Mental and physical relaxation combined with heightened alertness, improved concentration, enhanced memory, regulation of the nervous system, and restoration of immunity suppressed by stress are only a few of the benefits that science now ascribes to inhaling the aromas of flowers. Is it any wonder that these three trees, which produce a luxurious abundance of intoxicating blossoms, are associated with higher consciousness and the opening of the heart?

Walking through a thick carpet of parijata or bakul flowers that have bloomed in the night and fallen to the ground of a temple courtyard, it is easy to understand why the sages of old pointed to the heavens as the source of these flowers. Or, perhaps, the Rishis were telling us that heaven is wherever these beautiful trees blossom, green universes bursting with living solar systems of spiritually uplifting fragrance, showing us the way back to a better world.